The magnetic properties of the nickel(II) site in active Desulfovibrio baculatus (DSM 1743) [NiFeSe] hydrogenase have been measured using the multifield saturation magnetization technique. The periplasmic [NiFeSe] hydrogenase was isolated from bacteria grown in excess selenium in the presence of 57Fe. Saturation magnetization data were collected at three fixed fields (1.375, 2.75, 5.5 tesla) over the temperature range from 2 to 100 K. Mossbauer and EPR spectroscopies were used to characterize the magnetic state of the two [4Fe-4S] clusters of the enzyme and to quantitate the small amounts of iron impurities present in the sample. The nickel(II) site was found to be diamagnetic (low spin, S = 0). In combination with recent results from extended x-ray absorption fine structure studies, this magnetic state indicates that the nickel(II) site of active D. baculatus [NiFeSe] hydrogenase is five-coordinate.

A c-type monoheme ferricytochrome c550 (9.6 kDa) was isolated from cells of Bacillus halodenitrificans sp.nov., grown anaerobically as a denitrifier. The visible absorption spectrum indicates the presence of a band at 695 nm characteristic of heme–methionine coordination. The mid-point redox potential was determined at several pH values by visible spectroscopy. The redox potential at pH 7.6 is 138 mV. When studied by 1H-NMR spectroscopy as a function of pH, the spectrum shows a pH dependence with pKa values of 6.0 and 11.0. According to these pKa values, three forms designated as I, II and III can be attributed to cytochrome c550. The first pKa is probably associated with protonation of the propionate groups. The second pKa value introduces a larger effect in the 1H-NMR spectrum and is probably due to the ionisation of the axial histidine. Studies of temperature variation of the 1H-NMR spectra for both the ferrous and ferri forms of the cytochrome were performed. Heme meso protons, the heme methyl groups, the thioether protons, two protons from a propionate and the methylene protons from the axial methionine were identified in the reduced form. The heme methyl resonances of the ferri form were also assigned. EPR spectroscopy was also used to probe the ferric heme environment. A signal at gmax∼ 3.5 at pH 7.5 was observed indicating an almost axial heme environment. At higher pH values the signal at gmax∼ 3.5 converts mainly to a signal at g∼ 2.96. The pKa associated with this change is around 11.3. The N-terminal sequence of this cytochrome was determined and compared with known amino acid sequences of other cytochromes.

Adenylyl sulfate (APS) reductase, the key enzyme of the dissimilatory sulfate respiration, catalyzes the reduction of APS (the activated form of sulfate) to sulfite with release of AMP. A spectroscopic study was carried out with the APS reductase purified from the extremely thermophilic sulfate-reducing archaebacterium Archaeoglobus fulgidus DSM 4304. Combined ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy and low temperature electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) studies were used in order to characterize the active centers and the reactivity towards AMP and sulfite of this enzyme. The A. fulgidus APS reductase is an iron-sulfur flavoprotein containing two distinct [4Fe-4S] clusters (Centers I and II) very similar to the homologous enzyme from Desulfovibrio gigas. Center I, which has a high redox potential, is reduced by AMP and sulfite, and Center II has a very negative redox potential.

A dissimilatory bisulfite reductase has been purified from a thermophilic sulfate-reducing bacterium Desulfovibrio thermophilus (DSM 1276) and studied by EPR and optical spectroscopic techniques. The visible spectrum of the purified bisulfite reductase exhibits absorption maxima at 578.5, 392.5 and 281 nm with a weak band around 700 nm. Photoreduction of the native enzyme causes a decrease in absorption at 578.5 nm and a concomitant increase in absorption at 607 nm. When reduced, the enzyme reacts with cyanide, sulfite, sulfide and carbon monoxide to give stable complexes. The EPR spectrum of the native D. thermophilus bisulfite reductase shows the presence of a high-spin ferric signal with g values at 7.26, 4.78 and 1.92. Upon photoreduction the high-spin ferric heme signal disappeared and a typical 'g = 1.94' signal of [4Fe-4S] type cluster appeared. Chemical analyses show that the enzyme contains four sirohemes and eight [4Fe-4S] centers per mol of protein. The molecular mass determined by gel filtration was found to be 175 kDa. On SDS-gel electrophoresis the enzyme presents a main band of 44 to 48 kDa. These results suggest that the bisulfite reductase contains probably one siroheme and two [4Fe-4S] centers per monomer. The dissimilatory bisulfite reductase from D. thermophilus presents some homologous properties with desulfofuscidin, the bisulfite reductase isolated from Thermodesulfobacterium commune (Hatchikian, E.C. and Zeikus, J.G. (1983) J. Bacteriol. 153, 1211-1220).

The soluble (cytoplasmic plus periplasmic) Ni/Fe-S/Se-containing hydrogenase from Desulfovibrio baculatus (DSM 1743) was purified from cells grown in an 57Fe-enriched medium, and its iron-sulfur centers were extensively characterized by Mossbauer and EPR spectroscopies. The data analysis excludes the presence of a [3Fe-4S] center, either in the native (as isolated) or in the hydrogen-reduced states. In the native state, the non-heme iron atoms are arranged as two diamagnetic [4Fe-4S]2+ centers. Upon reduction, these two centers exhibit distinct and unusual Mossbauer spectroscopic parameters. The centers were found to have similar mid-point potentials (approximately -315 mV) as determined by oxidation-reduction titratins followed by EPR.

The hydrogenase (EC 1.2.2.1) of Desulfovibrio gigas is a complex enzyme containing one nickel center, one [3Fe-4S] and two [4Fe-4S] clusters. Redox intermediates of this enzyme were generated under hydrogen (the natural substrate) using a redox-titration technique and were studied by EPR and Mossbauer spectroscopy. In the oxidized states, the two [4Fe-4S]2+ clusters exhibit a broad quadrupole doublet with parameters (apparent delta EQ = 1.10 mm/s and delta = 0.35 mm/s) typical for this type of cluster. Upon reduction, the two [4Fe-4S]1+ clusters are spectroscopically distinguishable, allowing the determination of their midpoint redox potentials. The cluster with higher midpoint potential (-290 +/- 20 mV) was labeled Fe-S center I and the other with lower potential (-340 +/- 20 mV), Fe-S center II. Both reduced clusters show atypical magnetic hyperfine coupling constants, suggesting structural differences from the clusters of bacterial ferredoxins. Also, an unusually broad EPR signal, labeled Fe-S signal B', extending from approximately 150 to approximately 450 mT was observed concomitantly with the reduction of the [4Fe-4S] clusters. The following two EPR signals observed at the weak-field region were tentatively attributed to the reduced [3Fe-4S] cluster: (i) a signal with crossover point at g approximately 12, labeled the g = 12 signal, and (ii) a broad signal at the very weak-field region (approximately 3 mT), labeled the Fe-S signal B. The midpoint redox potential associated with the appearance of the g = 12 signal was determined to be -70 +/- 10 mV. At potentials below -250 mV, the g = 12 signal began to decrease in intensity, and simultaneously, the Fe-S signal B appeared. The transformation of the g = 12 signal into the Fe-S signal B was found to parallel the reduction of the two [4Fe-4S] clusters indicating that the [3Fe-4S]o cluster is sensitive to the redox state of the [4Fe-4S] clusters. Detailed redox profiles for the previously reported Ni-signal C and the g = 2.21 signal were obtained in this study, and evidence was found to indicate that these two signals represent two different oxidation states of the enzyme. Finally, the mechanistic implications of our results are discussed.

Ni and Se x-ray absorption spectroscopic studies of the [NiFeSe]hydrogenases from Desulfovibrio baculatus are described. The Ni site geometry is pseudo-octahedral with a coordinating ligand composition of 3-4 (N,O) at 2.06 A, 1-2 (S,Cl) at 2.17 A, and 1 Se at 2.44 A. The Se coordination environment consists of 1 C at 2.0 A and a heavy scatterer M (M = Ni or Fe) at approximately 2.4 A. These results are interpreted in terms of a selenocysteine residue coordinated to the Ni site. The possible role of the Ni-Se site in the catalytic activation of H2 is discussed.

The periplasmic hydrogenase containing equivalent amounts of nickel and selenium plus non-heme iron [NiFeSe) hydrogenase) has been purified from cells of the sulfate reducing bacterium Desulfovibrio baculatus (DSM 1748) grown on a lactate/sulfate medium containing natural Se isotopes and the nuclear isotope, 77Se. Both the 77Se-enriched and unenriched hydrogenases were shown to be free of other hydrogenases and characterized with regard to their Se contents. EPR studies of the reduced nickel signal generated by redox titrations of the enriched and unenriched (NiFeSe) hydrogenases demonstrated that the gx = 2.23 and gy = 2.17 resonances are appreciably broadened by the spin of the 77Se nucleus (I = 1/2). This observation demonstrates unambiguously that the unpaired electron is shared by the Ni and Se atoms and that Se serves as a ligand to the nickel redox center of the (NiFeSe) hydrogenase.

Thirteen cows maintained on natural bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) were analyzed cytogenetically. The frequency of structural chromosome aberrations detected in peripheral blood cells was significantly higher when compared to that detected in animals raised on pasture containing no bracken fern. We discuss the clastogenic action of fern and its synergistic action with infection by type 2 and 4 papilloma virus in the same animals.

The saturation magnetizations of the three iron cluster of ferredoxin II of Desulfovibrio gigas in both the oxidized and reduced states have been studied at fixed magnetic fields up to 4.5 tesla over the temperature range from 1.8 to 200 K. The low field (0.3 tesla) susceptibility of oxidized ferredoxin II obeys the Curie law over this entire temperature range. This establishes -2Jox greater than 200 cm-1 as the lower limit for the antiferromagnetic exchange coupling of oxidized ferredoxin II. The saturation magnetizations of reduced ferredoxin II at several fixed fields yield a nested family of curves which can be fit with spin S = 2 and D = -2.7(4) cm-1 (with E/D assigned the value 0.23 as determined by Mossbauer and EPR spectra). The low field susceptibility of reduced ferredoxin II also obeys the Curie law from approximately 4 up to 200 K. This establishes -2Jred greater than 40 cm-1 as the lower limit for the antiferromagnetic coupling of reduced ferredoxin II.

The periplasmic hydrogenase of Desulfovibrio vulgaris (Hildenbourough NCIB 8303) belongs to the category of [Fe] hydrogenase which contains only iron-sulfur clusters as its prosthetic groups. Amino acid analyses were performed on the purified D. vulgaris hydrogenase. The amino acid composition obtained compared very well with the result derived from the nucleotide sequence of the structural gene (Voordouw, G., Brenner, S. (1985) Eur. J. Biochem. 148, 515-520). Detailed EPR reductive titration studies on the D. vulgaris hydrogenase were performed to characterize the metal centers in this hydrogenase. In addition to the three previously observed EPR signals (namely, the "isotropic" 2.02 signal, the rhombic 2.10 signal, and the complex signal of the reduced enzyme), a rhombic signal with resonances at the g-values of 2.06, 1.96, and 1.89 (the rhombic 2.06 signal) was detected when the samples were poised at potentials between 0 and -250 mV (with respect to normal hydrogen electrode). The midpoint redox potentials for each of the four EPR-active species were determined, and the characteristics of each EPR signal are described. Both the rhombic 2.10 and 2.06 signals exhibit spectral properties that are distinct from a ferredoxin-type [4Fe-4S] cluster and are proposed to originate from the same H2-binding center but in two different conformations. The complex signal of the reduced hydrogenase has been shown to represent two spin-spin interacting ferredoxin-type [4Fe-4S]1+ clusters (Grande, H. J., Dunham, W. R., Averill, B., Van Dijk, C., and Sands, R. H. (1983) Eur. J. Biochem. 136, 201-207). The titration data indicated a strong cooperative effect between these two clusters during their reduction. In an effort to accurately estimate the number of iron atoms/molecule of hydrogenase, plasma emission and chemical methods were used to determine the iron contents in the samples; and four different methods, including amino acid analysis, were used for protein determination. The resulting iron stoichiometries were found to be method-dependent and vary over a wide range (+/- 20%). The uncertainties involved in the determination of iron stoichiometry are discussed.

Three types of hydrogenases have been isolated from the sulfate-reducing bacteria of the genus Desulfovibrio. They differ in their subunit and metal compositions, physico-chemical characteristics, amino acid sequences, immunological reactivities, gene structures and their catalytic properties. Broadly, the hydrogenases can be considered as 'iron only' hydrogenases and nickel-containing hydrogenases. The iron-sulfur-containing hydrogenase ([Fe] hydrogenase) contains two ferredoxin-type (4Fe-4S) clusters and an atypical iron-sulfur center believed to be involved in the activation of H2. The [Fe] hydrogenase has the highest specific activity in the evolution and consumption of hydrogen and in the proton-deuterium exchange reaction and this enzyme is the most sensitive to CO and NO2-. It is not present in all species of Desulfovibrio. The nickel-(iron-sulfur)-containing hydrogenases [( NiFe] hydrogenases) possess two (4Fe-4S) centers and one (3Fe-xS) cluster in addition to nickel and have been found in all species of Desulfovibrio so far investigated. The redox active nickel is ligated by at least two cysteinyl thiolate residues and the [NiFe] hydrogenases are particularly resistant to inhibitors such as CO and NO2-. The genes encoding the large and small subunits of a periplasmic and a membrane-bound species of the [NiFe] hydrogenase have been cloned in Escherichia (E.) coli and sequenced. Their derived amino acid sequences exhibit a high degree of homology (70%); however, they show no obvious metal-binding sites or homology with the derived amino acid sequence of the [Fe] hydrogenase. The third class is represented by the nickel-(iron-sulfur)-selenium-containing hydrogenases [( NiFe-Se] hydrogenases) which contain nickel and selenium in equimolecular amounts plus (4Fe-4S) centers and are only found in some species of Desulfovibrio. The genes encoding the large and small subunits of the periplasmic hydrogenase from Desulfovibrio (D.) baculatus (DSM 1743) have been cloned in E. coli and sequenced. The derived amino acid sequence exhibits homology (40%) with the sequence of the [NiFe] hydrogenase and the carboxy-terminus of the gene for the large subunit contains a codon (TGA) for selenocysteine in a position homologous to a codon (TGC) for cysteine in the large subunit of the [NiFe] hydrogenase. EXAFS and EPR studies with the 77Se-enriched D. baculatus hydrogenase indicate that selenium is a ligand to nickel and suggest that the redox active nickel is ligated by at least two cysteinyl thiolate and one selenocysteine selenolate residues.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

The molybdenum iron-sulphur protein originally isolated from Desulfovibrio gigas by Moura, Xavier, Bruschi, Le Gall, Hall & Cammack [(1976) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 72, 782-789] has been further investigated by e.p.r. spectroscopy of molybdenum(V). The signal obtained on extended reduction of the protein with sodium dithionite has been shown, by studies at 9 and 35 HGz in 1H2O and 2H2O and computer simulations, to have parameters corresponding to those of the Slow signal from the inactive desulpho form of various molybdenum-containing hydroxylases. Another signal obtained on brief reduction of the protein with small amounts of dithionite was shown by e.p.r. difference techniques to be a Rapid type 2 signal, like that from the active form of such enzymes. In confirmation that the protein is a molybdenum-containing hydroxylase, activity measurements revealed that it had aldehyde:2,6-dichlorophenol-indophenol oxidoreductase activity. No such activity towards xanthine or purine was observed. Salicylaldehyde was a particularly good substrate, and treatment of the protein with it also gave rise to the Rapid signal. Molybdenum cofactor liberated from the protein was active in the nit-1 Neurospora crassa nitrate reductase assay. It is concluded that the protein is a form of an aldehyde oxidase or dehydrogenase. From the intensity of the e.p.r. signals and from enzyme activity measurements, 10-30% of the protein in the sample examined appeared to be in the functional form. The evolutionary significance of the protein, which may represent a primitive form of the enzyme rather than a degradation product, is discussed briefly.

The [NiFe] hydrogenase isolated from Desulfovibrio gigas was poised at different redox potentials and studied by Mossbauer spectroscopy. The data firmly establish that this hydrogenase contains four prosthetic groups: one nickel center, one [3Fe-xS], and two [4Fe-4S] clusters. In the native enzyme, both the nickel and the [3Fe-xS] cluster are EPR-active. At low temperature (4.2 K), the [3Fe-xS] cluster exhibits a paramagnetic Mossbauer spectrum typical for oxidized [3Fe-xS] clusters. At higher temperatures (greater than 20 K), the paramagnetic spectrum collapses into a quadrupole doublet with parameters magnitude of delta EQ magnitude of = 0.7 +/- 0.06 mm/s and delta = 0.36 +/- 0.06 mm/s, typical of high-spin Fe(III). The observed isomer shift is slightly larger than those observed for the three-iron clusters in D. gigas ferredoxin II (Huynh, B. H., Moura, J. J. G., Moura, I., Kent, T. A., LeGall, J., Xavier, A. V., and Munck, E. (1980) J. Biol. Chem. 255, 3242-3244) and in Azotobacter vinelandii ferredoxin I (Emptage, M. H., Kent, T. A., Huynh, B. H., Rawlings, J., Orme-Johnson, W. H., and Munck, E. (1980) J. Biol. Chem. 255, 1793-1796) and may indicate a different iron coordination environment. When D. gigas hydrogenase is poised at potentials lower than -80 mV (versus normal hydrogen electrode), the [3Fe-xS] cluster is reduced and becomes EPR-silent. The Mossbauer data indicate that the reduced [3Fe-xS] cluster remains intact, i.e. it does not interconvert into a [4Fe-4S] cluster. Also, the electronic properties of the reduced [3Fe-xS] cluster suggest that it is magnetically isolated from the other paramagnetic centers.